The world’s biggest democracies finally stand on a shared platform; have some congruence in their world view; and most importantly feel the need to worktogether on many a count. Years of low trust and lack of understanding, even when sharing similar values, had kept them apart.

Historically, the relationship between India and the US had been strong. This was reflected in the visit of Swami Vivekananda, who introduced Yoga and Vedanta to America. Vivekananda was the first known Hindu sage to come to the West, where in 1893, he introduced Eastern thought at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago.. His first lecture began with the line, “Sisters and brothers of America ...” This salutation drew a thunderous applause possibly because the audience was always used to the opening words “Ladies and gentlemen....” It was this speech that catapulted Vivekananda to fame. Mark Twain visited India in 1896 and described it in his travelogue. During its independence movement, India looked up to America who supported the Indian independence in 1947. In fact, the Indian National Congress took its name after the American Congress which had declared independence from the British in 1776.

The first aviation contact between the two nations dates back to ‘The Hump’ airlift, a name given by Allied pilots in World War II to the eastern end of the Himalayan Mountains over which they flew military transport aircraft from India to resupply the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and the units of the US Army Air Forces (USAAF) based in China. Creating an airlift capability presented the USAAF considerable challenges in 1942. It had no units trained or equipped for moving cargo and no airfields existed in India for basing the large number of transports that would be required. Flying over the Himalayas was extremely dangerous and made more difficult by the lack of reliable charts, absence of radio navigation aids, and dearth of information about the weather. Originally referred to as the ‘India-China Ferry’, it was initially handled by the Assam-Burma-China Command called India-China Division. The airlift began in April 1942 after the Japanese blocked the Burma Road and continued on a daily basis from May 1942 to August 1945.

After India’s independence and until the end of the Cold War, the relationship between the US and India was cold and often thorny. In 1959, Dwight Eisenhower was the first US President to visit India to strengthen the staggering ties. He was so supportive that the New York Times remarked, “It did not seem to matter much whether Nehru had actually requested or been given a guarantee that the US would help India meet further Chinese Communist aggression. What mattered was the obvious strengthening of Indian-American friendship to a point where no such guarantee was necessary.” During John F. Kennedy’s tenure as President, India was considered a strategic partner and counterweight to the rise of Communist China. The Kennedy administration was also disturbed by what was considered “blatant Chinese Communist aggression against India” in 1962. In May 1963, the US discussed contingency planns that could be implemented in the event of another Chinese attack on India. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara and General Maxwell Taylor reportedly advised the President to use nuclear weapons if America had to intervene. Kennedy insisted that Washington defend India as it would any ally, saying, “We should defend India, and therefore, we will defend India.”

Kennedy’s Ambassador to India was the noted Canadian-American economist John Kenneth Galbraith. While in India, Galbraith helped establish one of the first Indian computer science departments at the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur. As an economist, he also presided over the then largest US foreign aid programme to any country.

Joint Exercises

On November 6, 1963, six US Air Force (USAF) Tactical Air Command F-100 Super-Sabres landed in Delhi after a non-stop flight from Dhahran in Saudi Arabia. They were the first of three waves of the US fighters participating in Exercise Shiksha. The accounts of Wing Commander Donald Michael and Willy Logan best summarised the first serious interaction between the two Air Forces. The planes flew over the airfield in tight formation and then circled around to land. As each high-performance fighter touched down, it deployed a parachute to help lose speed. After the pilots had disembarked , the US Embassy officials and IAF brass accorded the guests a ceremonial welcome. The US Ambassador Chester Bowles addressed the pilots, wishing them success on their “important mission” of bolstering India’s air defences.

Preparations for Exercise Shiksha had begun shortly after the air agreement of July 1963. In August and September, USAF planes airlifted radar components to India. American crew oversaw the erection of radars and trained Indian personnel in their use. The American F-100 pilots of the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing spent a month preparing for the exercise. In addition to practising aerial refuelling and other technical skills, the pilots learned about social and political conditions in South Asia by watching the US Army “Area Study” films.

Exercise Shiksha was held in the Eastern and Western Air Commands of the IAF Air Vice Marshal (AVM) Arjan Singh (now Marshal of the IAF) as the overall commander. Each sector had its own sub-commander from the IAF. In the eastern sector, AVM Shivdev Singh oversaw the exercise with RAF and IAF aircraft based at IAF Kalaikunda, West Bengal. In the western sector, AVM E.W. Pinto oversaw the operations of USAF and IAF crew based at Palam. Two Australian Canberra bombers flew out of Agra. In addition to IAF Hunter, Gnat and Canberra units; the RAAF fielded a Canberra detachment, 64 Squadron, RAF a Javelin detachment, and the USAF F-100 Squadron, the 356th TFS.

Ironically, four decades later similar venues were to be host to Cope India series of Indo-US exercises, Gwalior, Kalaikunda and Agra. “The purpose of Cope India ‘04 was to conduct bilateral training in order to enhance US-India relationship as also promote regional security and stability in the Asian-Pacific area,” said Colonel Greg Neubeck, Third Operations Group Deputy Commander and the commander of US Forces deployed for the exercise. “The most immediate result will be the increased understanding of each other’s capabilities and work together as a combined and integrated team.” Cope India became a series of international air exercises between the USAF and the IAF conducted in India. The first such exercise, which required many months of preparation, was conducted from February 16 to 27, 2004 at Air Force Station in Gwalior which also houses the Tactics Air Combat Development Establishment and the . Dassault Mirage 2000 squadrons. Brought in for the exercise were Sukhoi Su-30s not the MKI). Five MiG-29s were used in a peripheral role and an An-32 flew as a simulated AWACS.

The exercise included flight tests, practise and demonstrations as well as lectures on subjects related to aviation. There were also media and social interaction among air warriors of the two nations. After the event, the IAF indicated that the mutual respect and bonhomie that developed between the two sides had laid a firm foundation for higher bilateralism. According to press reports, representatives of the US found it a “positive experience” that led to the re-evaluation of some assumptions about the US air tactics. The exercise was repeated in 2005, 2006 and 2009.

The US pilots faced innovative IAF tactics. Performance of F-15Cs in simulated air-to-air combat against the IAF was perceived by some, both in the US and overseas, as a weakening of American capabilities generating taunts from within the competitive US fighter community. The Cope India exercise also seemingly shocked some in Congress and the Pentagon who used the event to renew the call for modernising the US fighter force with stealthy F/A-22 and F-35 joint strike fighters. USAF planners saw Cope India as the first step in a series of annual exchange exercises.

The Indo-US joint air exercise Cope 05 was held at Kalaikunda Air Force station amid protests from CPI (M) and other Left parties. F-16 Fighting Falcons and E-3 Sentry Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft participated for the first time in the massive two-week joint exercise besides the IAF’s Su-30MKI, MiG-29, MiG-27 and MiG-21 BIS. KC-130 refuelling aircraft also took part in the Pacific Air Force sponsored exercise. The Kalaikunda Air Force Base which is strategically located with large airspace and practice ranges, became the first base in India to have played host to the USAF F-16 and an E3C Sentry AWACS.

Cope India 09 was an airlift exercise that provided training for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations. A total of 25 sorties were flown on the C-17 Globemaster III and C-130 H and J Hercules during the exercise, which took place at Agra which houses the IAF’s strategic airlift assets. The objectives of the exercise were to foster stronger cooperation and joint operations capability between the US and Indian forces by exchanging humanitarian airlift, air-land and air drop capabilities. Additionally, more than 110 US and Indian paratroopers conducted static line or high-altitude low-observable jumps in the first known airdrops of IAF personnel from a US C-17 and C-130J aircraft.

The Cope India series were followed by IAF participation in Red Flag exercise which is an advanced aerial combat training exercise hosted at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, and Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, the latter location being known as Red Flag–Alaska and being a successor to the previous Cope Thunder exercise series. SU-30MKIs along with two IL-78 mid-air refuellers and an IL-76 heavy-lift aircraft participated.

Dawn of a New Relationship

These exercises saw the beginning of a new relationship, unfolding of the dream Indo-US aviation story. The IAF was exposed to American platforms and their employability. Early 2008, under the foreign military sales (FMS) programme of the US Government, the IAF purchased six C-130J-30s at a cost of over $1 billion ( Rs. 5,000 crore) for special operations. with options to buy six more aircraft. The Lockheed Martin C-130J “Super” Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft, a comprehensive update of the venerable Lockheed C-130 Hercules, with new engines, flight deck and other systems. The Hercules family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service, the aircraft has participated in military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations. Fifteen nations placed orders for a total of 300 C-130Js, of which nearly 260 aircraft have been delivered. The C-130J is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still in production. Externally similar to the classic Hercules, the J-model features considerably updated technology. These differences include new Rolls-Royce AE 2100 D3 turboprops with composite propellers, digital avionics including head-up displays for each pilot, thus reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its predecessors, such as 40 per cent greater range, 21 per cent higher maximum speed and 41 per cent shorter take-off distance.

The largest operator of the ‘J’ version is the USAF, which has ordered the aircraft in increasing numbers. Other operators of the C-130J are the US Marine Corps US Coast Guard, Royal Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian Air Force, Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, IAF and the Italian Air Force. The Indian Government decided not to sign the Communications Interoperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), which resulted in the exclusion of high precision GPS and other sensitive equipment. However, the IAF added similar equipment produced indigenously. Satisfied with the performance of the C-130J in the earthquake relief operation in Sikkim, in October 2011, India decided to exercise the option for the six additional aircraft.

The $1.2-billion ( Rs. 6,000 crore) contract was finalised in February 2008. The first C-130J was delivered to the IAF in December 2010. The third and fourth C-130Js were delivered in June 2011, the fifth in September and the sixth in December 2011. The C-130J is equipped with a Honeywell dual embedded Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System (GPS/INS), an Enhanced Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (E-TCAS), a ground collision avoidance system, SKE2000 station keeping system, and an Instrument Landing System (ILS). The cargo bay of the C-130J has a total usable volume of more than 4,500 cu ft and can accommodate loads up to 37,216 lb which could include three armoured personnel carriers, five pallets, 74 stretchers, 92 equipped combat troops or 64 paratroops. The bay is equipped with cargo handling rollers, tie-down rings, stowage containers and stowage for troop seats. The ATK AN/AAR-47 missile warning system uses electro-optic sensors to detect missile exhaust and advanced signal processing algorithms and spectral selection to analyse and prioritise threats. The BAE Systems AN/ALR-56M radar warning receiver is a super heterodyne receiver operating in the 2GHz to 20 GHz bands. The BAE Systems Integrated Defence Solutions (formerly Tracor) AN/ALE-47 countermeasures system is capable of dispensing chaff and infra-red flares in addition to the POET and GEN-X active expendable decoys.

The Lockheed Martin AN/ALQ-157 infrared countermeasures system generates a varying frequency-agile infrared jamming signal. The engines are equipped with Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) by Lucas Aerospace. An automatic thrust control system (ATCS) optimises the balance of power on the engines, allowing lower values of minimum control speeds and superior short-airfield performance. The aircraft can carry a maximum internal fuel load of 45,900 lb. An additional 18,700 lb of fuel can be carried in under-wing fuel tanks.