The Indo-French aviation relationship will once again be cemented for decades ahead. The ‘commercial’ approach of the French Government was not always appreciated by its Western allies, but it enhanced France’s image in Delhi, which considered France as probably the most reliable Western ‘friend’.

During the initial training of test pilots, one is taught to assess an aircraft’s characteristics by just looking at it. The saying goes: “The prettier the aircraft to look at, the better it is to fly”. The wing-body blending, the intake design, the shape of the wing, the incline of fuselage, the size of the vertical stabiliser, the wheel base, all indicate unique design features. For centuries, the French have been associated with finer things of life; their language was adopted by the kings and the courts, their cuisine, fashion, wine, cheese, French fries and finally the French kiss and French leave, all added to the mystique. French Revolution greatly influenced the world. The French have given much more to the world than the Eiffel Tower.

In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers of France reportedly became the first in history to leave the earth’s surface in a balloon. Aviation madness was born! The next step, Powered Flight! December 1903 saw Wright Brothers beat others to it. It wasn’t until 1906 that the French, Brazilianborn Albert Santos-Dumont with Bleriot and Voisin cheering him on from the side lines, achieved a flight covering 722 feet in just over 22 seconds.

French Aircraft in the IAF – Early Days

After World War II, aviation designer Marcel Dassault was eager to reestablish the aviation industry with an all-French jet fighter. The MD450 (Marcel Dassault) Ouragan was the first French-designed jet fighter-bomber to enter production, playing a key role in resurgence of the French aviation industry. The Ouragan was later operated by France, Israel, India and El Salvador. While in Israeli service, it participated in both the Suez Crisis and the Six-Day War. The Ouragan was small and light and had a thin wing similar to the one on the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star.

Association of the Indian Air Force (IAF) with French aircraft began on June 25, 1953 when India ordered 71 Ouragans. Deliveries started that year and was completed in March 1954. An additional order for 33 second-hand Ouragans in March 1957 brought the total to 104. Selection of the Dassault Ouragan at the time reflected the Indian intent to initiate diversification of supply sources. Rechristened as the ‘Toofani’ (Hurricane), the aircraft undertook air strikes against the Portuguese territory of Diu. They were also used in ground attack missions against rebels in Assam and Nagaland, and for reconnaissance missions in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.

The IAF started to replace the Ouragan in frontline service in 1957 by the Mystère IVA, the first “supersonic-in-a-dive” aircraft. Toofanis were withdrawn fully from frontline service in 1965, although they continued to be in use for some years as advanced trainer and for target towing. Of the five sdquadrons of Mysteres in the IAF, No. 1 Squadron was the first to be raised in 1957. Squadron Leader Dilbagh Singh, later Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), was the team leader for training in France. Interestingly, as the CAS, he selected No. 1 Squadron to receive the Mirage 2000. The remaining four squadrons of Mysteres were raised by 1965. In all, the IAF procured 104 of Mysteres and used them extensively in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. On September 7, 1965, an Indian Mystere shot down a Pakistani Lockheed F-104 Starfighter in a raid over Sargoda and on September 16, a Pakistani L-19. The Mystere pilot Devayya who shot down the Starfighter, was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra posthumously 23 years after the battle. Mystère IVs also destroyed Pakistani aircraft on the ground including four F-86F, three F-104 and two Lockheed C-130 Hercules. The phasing out of the aircraft started after the 1965 War; though it saw further action in the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971. It was phased out by 1973.

The Soviet Connection

Late in 1960, when as a result of the increasing frequency of clashes with Chinese forces on the Himalayan border, need was felt for increase in airlift capability, with a requirement for medium helicopters suitable for high-altitude operation. Orders were placed for the first time on the Soviet Union for An-12 and Ilyushin-14 transport aircraft as also Mi-4 helicopters. This decision taken in August 1962 was to profoundly alter the complexion and strength of the IAF. The Government of India signed up with the Soviet Union for supply of combat aircraft and missiles. First to be inducted were 12 MiG-21 fighters, the IAF’s first combat aircraft of non-western origin, followed by setting up of Russian aircraft production at Nasik, and the procurement of SA-2 (Dvina) surface-to-air missiles. IAF thereafter remained the Russian way for a very long time.

Enter the Mirage 2000

The Dassault Mirage 2000, a French multi-role single-engine jet was designed for the French Air Force in the late 1970s as a lightweight fighter based on the Mirage III. It later evolved into several variants. These include the Mirage 2000N and 2000D strike variants, the improved Mirage 2000-5 and several export variants. Over 600 aircraft were built and are in service in at least nine countries. The Mirage 2000 evolved from a series of Dassault projects in the period 1965 to 1975. The first in this series was a project known as the “Anglo-French Variable Geometry” swing-wing aircraft, begun in 1965. The French pulled out in 1967. The British, Germans and Italians, eventually produced the Panavia Tornado multi-role combat aircraft.

Dassault had been working on other fighter options in the meantime. These alternatives were smaller, simpler and cheaper. Another important reason for Dassault to push the development of a smaller aircraft was to give the company a competitor to the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. It took the form of a number of “Mini-Mirage (Mimi)” concepts. These concepts evolved into an aircraft known at first as the “Super Mirage III”, then the “Delta 1000”, “Delta 2000”, “Super Mirage 2000”, and finally just “Mirage 2000”. Mirage 2000 was much more affordable and was given approval to proceed by the French Government on December 18, 1975.

The Mirage 2000 featured a low-set, thin delta wing with cambered section, 58 degrees leading-edge sweep and moderately blended root; area-ruled; two small canard wings, fixed, placed just behind the air intakes. Four elevons (+15/-30°, carbon-fibre skins with light alloy honeycomb structure as core) and four slats formed part of the four computer (analogue) controlled fly-by-wire control system. Relaxed stability gave it enhanced manoeuvrability. A much taller tailfin allowed the pilot to retain control at higher angles of attack, assisted by the small strakes mounted along each air intake. The landing roll could be reduced by robust carbon brakes, an arrester hook and a tail chute. A removable refuelling probe was mounted on the right of the cockpit.

The prototype made its first flight on March 10, 1978, by test pilot Jean Coreau at the controls. Despite many new technologies, the prototype flew in only 27 months. Radar development was critical in the Mirage 2000 project. Despite obstacles it was operationally introduced in 1982. At the Farnborough Air Show that year, they demonstrated full control at little over a 100 kts and 26 degree angle of attack. For a delta-wing fighter, it was a great achievement and once again proved the power of active controls technology. The Mirage 2000 was one of the stars of that show and a direct competitor to the F-16. Finally, the first dual-seat Mirage 2000B flew in October 1980 and the first production aircraft on November 20, 1982.

With an override, it was possible to exceed a 270 degree/sec roll rate and allow the aircraft to reach 11 g within the 12 g structural limit. The system was reliable with no known losses owing to its failure till date. It had incorporated hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls. The pilot sits on a Martin Baker Mk10, zero-zero ejection seat. Incidentally, I who was among the first batch of Indian pilots to train in France, had to recently use the seat in flight, thus became the only known Air Marshal to have ejected from a fighter aircraft in the world. The cockpit visibility was quite good.

Thomson-CSF RDM multi-mode pulse-Doppler radar had an operating range of 100 km, with look-down/shoot-down capabilities. The effective range was around 70 km with modest capabilities against low-level targets in conjunction with Super R530F/D missiles and Magic 2 A4M. The IAF received the first comprehensive electronic warfare (EW) suite on any aircraft with a self-protection jammer, RWR, chaff and flare dispenser, an escort jammer and an Elint Pod. Nearly 6.3 tonnes on nine pylons, with two pylons on each wing and five under the fuselage was a significant load.

The IAF purchased 49 Mirage 2000s, including 42 singleseaters and seven two-seaters in the 1980s. In 2004, purchase of ten more Mirage 2000Hs were cleared. An upgrade was planned with the aim to give the aircraft better capabilities, bringing them to Mirage 2000-5 Mk 2 standards and extending its useful life for another 25 years. The $3 billion ( Rs. 15,000 crore) contract was signed in 2011. Two squadrons, No 1 ‘Tigers’ and No 7 ‘Battleaxes’, at Gwalior, operated the fleet. Later, the third squadron No 9 ‘Wolf Packs’ was formed. France, UAE, Taiwan, Greece, Egypt, Qatar, Peru, Brazil are the other operators of the Mirage 2000.

The Mirage 2000 performed exceedingly well in the 1999 Kargil conflict. The battle took place over some of the highest terrain in the world where aircraft and weapons had their own limitations. Conventional targets like airfields, command and control centres and convoys did not exist. Instead the IAF was required to strike tents and fortified bunkers, the single biggest structure being a hangar capable of taking a helicopter. Heights varied along the line, with a low of 2,700 metres at Kargil, going up to 3,400 metres in Dras. Tiger Hill was at 5,000 metres. Due to the abundance of man-portable surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) such as the Stingers with the enemy, the IAF decided after experience that high-altitude bombing by the Mirage 2000 was the best option. Thomson-CSF laser designator pod known as ‘ATLIS’ was capable of delivery of Matra 1,000 kg laser-guided bombs (LGBs) against reinforced targets. These weapons were very expensive. The IAF augmented their capability by adding the 1,000 lb bomb coupled with Paveway II LGB kit. The aircraft was modified to drop LGBs as well as conventional unguided bombs.

Two Mirage squadrons reportedly flew a total of 515 sorties, and in 240 strike missions dropped 55,000 kg of ordnance. Easy maintenance and a very high sortie rate made the Mirage 2000 one of the most efficient fighters of the IAF in the conflict. If war were to break out between India and Pakistan, the battle in the air would have been between two old arch rivals, the Indian Mirage 2000 H and the Pakistani F-16 A/B. Mirage 2000 is known to be slightly better at interception and attack role. The F-16 is good at dogfight. MiG 29 is very good at dogfight and interception but is low on endurance.

MMRCA for the IAF

In 2001, he IAF projected a requirement for 126 aircraft. There was an option for an additional 63 aircraft. Initial requirements appeared to be for a 20-tonne class fighter aircraft with the Mirage 2000 as the strongest contender. However, the 20-tonne MTOW limit requirement was removed. The IAF would also require replacements for its frontline strike aircraft like the MiG-27 and Jaguar, which were to retire by 2015/20. India’s future aircraft, the Russian-Indian fifth-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA) and the indigenous medium combat aircraft, would not be ready before 2018 and 2025 respectively, thus necessitating replacement. Hence the medium multi-role combat aircraft (MMRCA) tender for a medium-weight aircraft (MTOW of 24 tonnes) as the MMRCA. The Indian Government was to buy the first 18 aircraft directly from the manufacturer. The remaining fighters were to be built under licence with a transfer of technology (ToT) by the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

Request for information (RFI) was issued in 2004, initially to four vendors: Dassault (Mirage 2000-5 Mk.2), Lockheed Martin (F-16C/D), Mikoyan (MiG-29OVT) and Saab (JAS 39 Gripen). On account of delay in the tendering process, Dassault replaced the Mirage 2000-5 with the offer of the Rafale. The MiG-35 was offered in place of the MiG-29OVT. Eurofighter Typhoon also entered the competition As also the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) had allocated Rs. 82,000 crore for the purchase of these aircraft, making it India’s mother-ofall defence deals. The MMRCA was to fill the gap between its future light combat aircraft and its in-service Sukhoi Su-30MKI air superiority fighter. On April 27, 2011, after an intensive and detailed technical evaluation by the IAF, the race narrowed to the Eurofighter Typhoon and the Dassault Rafale. On January 31, 2012, it was announced that Dassault Rafale won the competition due to its lower life-cycle cost. Contract negotiations are now on. The cost of the deal is likely to be about $20 billion ( Rs. 1,00,000 crore), with options for purchasing additional aircraft. When the contract is finalised, the first 18 aircraft will be supplied directly by Dassault within about three years and the remainder will be produced under licence by the HAL.

French twin-engine delta-wing fighter aircraft the Rafale, from Dassault Aviation, is called an omnirole fighter with semistealth capabilities. It is a multi-role combat aircraft capable of simultaneously undertaking air supremacy, interdiction, reconnaissance and airborne nuclear deterrent missions.

Development of the Rafale

In 1979, Dassault joined the MBB/BAe European Collaborative Fighter project which was renamed the European Combat Aircraft (ECA). The French company contributed the aerodynamic layout of prospective twin-engine, single-seat fighter; but the project collapsed in 1981. A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. Around 1984, France reiterated its requirement for a carrier-capable version and demanded a leading role. Moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than the design desired by the other four nations. West Germany, UK and Italy opted out and established a new EFA programme to go ahead with the Eurofighter. Spain rejoined the Eurofighter project in early September 1985. The four-nation project eventually resulted in the Eurofighter Typhoon.

In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. The Rafale was to replace a wide range of aircraft of the French Armed Forces justifying the high cost of exclusive development.

The resultant Rafale, a technology demonstrator, was a large-delta winged fighter, with all-moving canards. It undertook maiden flight on July 4, 1986, at Istre. The demonstrator was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400. The M88 engine came in 1990. The aircraft also demonstrated super cruise, sustained supersonic flight without afterburners. Finally entering service in 2000, the Rafale is being produced both for the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in the French Navy. The aircraft has been employed in combat over Afghanistan, Libya and Mali.

The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility. Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close-coupled canard to maximise manoeuvrability. The aerodynamically unstable aircraft uses digital fly-by-wire flight control. The aircraft’s canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots. According to simulations by Dassault, the Rafale has sufficient slow speed performance to operate from STOBAR-configured aircraft carriers and can take off using a ski-jump with no modifications.

Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft, the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably high, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section (RCS) and infrared signature. In order to reduce the RCS, changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail-fin, fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft’s wing, and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards.

The Rafale’s glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion. A central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simplified command and control. An integrated direct voice input (DVI) system allows a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by a pilot’s voice commands. The primary flight controls are arranged in HOTAS compatible configuration, with a right-handed side-stick controller and a left-handed throttle.

The cockpit features a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD), two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function displays (MFDs) as well as a central collimated display. A headmounted display (HMD) is under development. The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles (NVG).